Natural Gas and Oil Well Completion

Once a natural gas or oil well is drilled, and it has been verified that commercially viable quantities of natural gas are present for extraction, the well must be 'completed' to allow for the flow of petroleum or natural gas out of the formation and up to the surface. This process includes strengthening the well hole with casing, evaluating the pressure and temperature of the formation, and then installing the proper equipment to ensure an efficient flow of natural gas out of the well.

There are three main types of conventional natural gas wells. Since oil is commonly associated with natural gas deposits, a certain amount of natural gas may be obtained from wells that were drilled primarily for oil production. These are known as oil wells. In some cases, this "associated" natural gas is used to help in the production of oil, by providing pressure in the formation for the oils extraction. The associated natural gas may also exist in large enough quantities to allow its extraction along with the oil.

Natural gas wells are wells drilled specifically for natural gas, and contain little or no oil.
Condensate wells are wells that contain natural gas, as well as a liquid condensate. This condensate is a liquid hydrocarbon mixture that is often separated from the natural gas either at the wellhead, or during the processing of the natural gas. Depending on the type of well that is being drilled, completion may differ slightly. It is important to remember that natural gas, being lighter than air, will naturally rise to the surface of a well. Because of this, in many natural gas and condensate wells, lifting equipment and well treatment are not necessary.

Completing a well consists of a number of steps; installing the well casing, completing the well, installing the wellhead, and installing lifting equipment or treating the formation should that be required.
Installing well casing is an important part of the drilling and completion process. Well casing consists of a series of metal tubes installed in the freshly drilled hole. Casing serves to strengthen the sides of the well hole, ensure that no oil or natural gas seeps out of the well hole as it is brought to the surface, and to keep other fluids or gases from seeping into the formation through the well. A good deal of planning is necessary to ensure that the proper casing for each well is installed. Types of casing used depend on the subsurface characteristics of the well, including the diameter of the well (which is dependent on the size of the drill bit used) and the pressures and temperatures experienced throughout the well. In most wells, the diameter of the well hole decreases the deeper it is drilled, leading to a type of conical shape that must be taken into account when installing casing.

There are five different types of well casing. They include:

Conductor Casing

Surface Casing

Intermediate Casing

Liner String

Production Casing

Conductor casing is installed first, usually prior to the arrival of the drilling rig. The hole for conductor casing is often drilled with a small auger drill, mounted on the back of a truck. Conductor casing, which is usually no more than 20 to 50 feet long, is installed to prevent the top of the well from caving in and to help in the process of circulating the drilling fluid up from the bottom of the well. Onshore, this casing is usually 16 to 20 inches in diameter while offshore casing usually measures 30 to 42 inches. The conductor casing is cemented into place before drilling begins.

Surface casing is the next type of casing to be installed. It can be anywhere from a few hundred to 2,000 feet long, and is smaller in diameter than the conductor casing. When installed, the surface casing fits inside the top of the conductor casing. The primary purpose of surface casing is to protect fresh water deposits near the surface of the well from being contaminated by leaking hydrocarbons or salt water from deeper underground. It also serves as a conduit for drilling mud returning to the surface, and helps protect the drill hole from being damaged during drilling. Surface casing, like conductor casing, is also cemented into place. Regulations often dictate the thickness of the cement to be used, to ensure that there is little possibility of freshwater contamination.

Intermediate casing is usually the longest section of casing found in a well. The primary purpose of intermediate casing is to minimize the hazards that come along with subsurface formations that may affect the well. These include abnormal underground pressure zones, underground shales, and formations that might otherwise contaminated the well, such as underground salt-water deposits. In many instances, even though there may be no evidence of an unusual underground formation, intermediate casing is run as insurance against the possibility of such a formation affecting the well. These intermediate casing areas may also be cemented into place for added protection.

Liner strings are sometimes used instead of intermediate casing. Liner strings are commonly run from the bottom of another type of casing to the open well area. However, liner strings are usually just attached to the previous casing with 'hangers', instead of being cemented into place. This type of casing is thus less permanent than intermediate casing.

Production casing, alternatively called the 'oil string' or 'long string', is installed last and is the deepest section of casing in a well. This is the casing that provides a conduit from the surface of the well to the petroleum producing formation. The size of the production casing depends on a number of considerations, including the lifting equipment to be used, the number of completions required, and the possibility of deepening the well at a later time. For example, if it is expected that the well will be deepened at a later date, then the production casing must be wide enough to allow the passage of a drill bit later on.

Well casing is a very important part of the completed well. In addition to strengthening the well hole, it also provides a conduit to allow hydrocarbons to be extracted without intermingling with other fluids and formations found underground. It is also instrumental in preventing blowouts, allowing the formation to be 'sealed' from the top should dangerous pressure levels be reached.

Well completion commonly refers to the process of finishing a well so that it is ready to produce oil or natural gas. In essence, completion consists of deciding on the characteristics of the intake portion of the well in the targeted hydrocarbon formation. There are a number of types of completions, including:

Open Hole Completion

Conventional Perforated Completion

Sand Exclusion Completion

Permanent Completion

Multiple Zone Completion

Drainhole Completion

The use of any type of completion depends on the characteristics and location of the hydrocarbon formation to be drilled.

Open hole completions are the most basic type and are only used in very competent formations, which are unlikely to cave in. An open hole completion consists of simply running the casing directly down into the formation, leaving the end of the piping open, without any other protective filter. Very often, this type of completion is used on formations that have been treated with hydraulic of acid fracturing.

Conventional perforated completions consist of production casing being run through the formation. The sides of this casing are perforated, with tiny holes along the sides facing the formation, which allows for the flow of hydrocarbons into the well hole, but still provides a suitable amount of support and protection for the well hole. The process of actually perforating the casing involves the use of specialized equipment designed to make tiny holes through the casing, cementing, and any other barrier between the formation and the open well. In the past, bullet perforators were used, which were essentially small guns lowered into the well. The guns, when fired from the surface, sent off small bullets that penetrated the casing and cement. Today, jet perforating is preferred. This consists of small, electrically ignited charges, lowered into the well. When ignited, these charges poke tiny holes through to the formation, in the same manner as bullet perforating.

Exclusion completions are designed for production in an area that contains a large amount of loose sand. These completions are designed to allow for the flow of natural gas and oil into the well, but at the same time prevent sand from entering the well. Sand inside the well hole can cause many complications, including erosion of casing and other equipment. The most common method of keeping sand out of the well hole are screening, or filtering systems. This includes analyzing the sand experienced in the formation and installing a screen or filter to keep sand particles out. This filter may either be a type of screen hung inside the casing, or adding a layer of specially sized gravel outside the casing to filter out the sand. Both of these types of sand barriers can be used in open hole and perforated completions.

Permanent completions are those in which the completion, and wellhead, is assembled and installed only once. Installing the casing, cementing, perforating, and other completion work is done with small diameter tools to ensure the permanent nature of the completion. Completing a well in this manner can lead to significant cost savings compared to other types.

Multiple zone completion is the practice of completing a well such that hydrocarbons from two or more formations may be produced simultaneously, without mixing with each other. For example, a well may be drilled that passes through a number of formations on its way deeper underground, or alternately, it may be efficient in a horizontal well to add multiple completions to drain the formation most effectively.

Although it is common to separate multiple completions so that the fluids from the different formations do not intermingle, the complexity of achieving complete separation is often a barrier. In some instances, the different formations being drilled are close enough in nature to allow fluids to intermingle in the well hole. When it is necessary to separate different completions, hard rubber packing instruments are used to maintain separation.

Drainhole completions are a form of horizontal or slant drilling. This type of completion consists of drilling out horizontally into the formation from a vertical well, essentially providing a 'drain' for the hydrocarbons to run down into the well. In certain formations, drilling a drainhole completion may allow for more efficient and balanced extraction of the targeted hydrocarbons. These completions are more commonly associated with oil wells than with natural gas wells.

The wellhead consists of the pieces of equipment mounted at the opening of the well to regulate and monitor the extraction of hydrocarbons from the underground formation. It also prevents leaking of oil or natural gas out of the well, and prevents blowouts due to high pressure formations. Formations that are under high pressure typically require wellheads that can withstand a great deal of upward pressure from the escaping gases and liquids. These wellheads must be able to withstand pressures of up to 20,000 psi. The wellhead consists of three components: the casing head, the tubing head, and the christmas tree.

The casing head consists of heavy fittings that provide a seal between the casing and the surface. The casing head also serves to support the entire length of casing that is run all the way down the well. This piece of equipment typically contains a gripping mechanism that ensures a tight seal between the head and the casing itself.

The tubing head is much like the casing head. It provides a seal between the tubing, which is run inside the casing, and the surface. Like the casing head, the tubing head is designed to support the entire length of the casing, as well as provide connections at the surface, which allow the flow of fluids out of the well to be controlled.

The christmas tree is the piece of equipment that fits atop the casing and tubing heads, and contains tubes and valves that serve to control the flow of hydrocarbons and other fluids out of the well. It commonly contains many branches and is shaped somewhat like a tree, thus its name, christmas tree. The christmas tree is the most visible part of a producing well, and allows for the surface monitoring and regulation of the production of hydrocarbons from a producing well.

Once the well is completed, it may begin to produce natural gas. In some instances, the hydrocarbons that exist in pressurized formations will naturally rise up through the well to the surface. This is most commonly the case with natural gas. Since natural gas is lighter than air, once a conduit to the surface is opened, the pressurized gas will rise to the surface with little or no interference. This is most common for formations containing natural gas alone, or with a light condensate. In these scenarios, once the christmas tree is installed, the natural gas will flow to the surface on its own.

In order to more fully understand the nature of the well, a potential test is typically run in the early days of production. This test allows well engineers to determine the maximum amount of natural gas that the well can produce in a 24 hour period. From this, and other knowledge of the formation, the engineer may make an estimation on what the MER, or 'most efficient recovery rate' will be. The MER is the rate at which the greatest amount of natural gas may be extracted without harming the formation itself. Another important aspect of producing wells is the 'decline rate'. When a well is first drilled, the formation is under pressure and produces natural gas at a very high rate. However, as more and more natural gas is extracted from the formation, the production rate of the well decreases. This is known as the decline rate. Certain techniques, including lifting equipment and well stimulation, can increase the production rate of a well.

In some natural gas wells, and oil wells that have associated natural gas, it is more difficult to ensure an efficient flow of hydrocarbons up the well. The underground formation may be very 'tight', making the movement of petroleum through the formation and up the well a very slow and inefficient process. In these cases, lifting equipment or well treatment is required.

Lifting equipment consists of a variety of specialized equipment used to help 'lift' petroleum out of a formation. This is most commonly used to extract oil from a formation. Because oil is found as a viscous liquid, it takes some coaxing to extract it from underground. Various types of lifting equipment are available, but the most common lifting method is known as, rod pumping. Rod pumping is powered by a surface pump that moves a cable and rod up and down in the well, providing the lifting pressure required to bring the oil to the surface. The most common type of cable rod lifting equipment is the 'horse head' or conventional beam pump. These pumps are recognizable by the distinctive shape of the cable feeding fixture, which resembles a horse's head

Well treatment is another method of ensuring the efficient flow of hydrocarbons out of a formation. Essentially, this type of well stimulation consists of injecting acid, water, or gases into the well to open up the formation and allow the petroleum to flow through the formation more easily. Acidizing a well consists of injecting acid, usually hydrochloric acid into the well. In limestone or carbonate formations, the acid dissolves portions of the rock in the formation, opening up existing spaces to allow for the flow of petroleum. Fracturing consists of injecting a fluid into the well, the pressure of which 'cracks' or opens up fractures already present in the formation. In addition to the fluid being injected, 'propping agents' are also used. These propping agents can consist of sand, glass beads, epoxy, or silica sand, and serve to prop open the newly widened fissures in the formation. Hydraulic fracturing involves the injection of water into the formation, while CO2 fracturing uses gaseous carbon dioxide. Fracturing, acidizing, and lifting equipment may all be used on the same well to increase permeability.

These techniques are mostly applicable to oil wells, but have also been used to increase the extraction rate for gas wells. Because it is a low-density gas under pressure, the completion of natural gas wells usually requires little more than the installation of casing, tubing, and the wellhead. Unlike oil, natural gas is much easier to extract from an underground formation. However, as deeper and less conventional natural gas wells are drilled, it is becoming more common to use stimulation techniques on gas wells.

Natural Gas Processing

Natural gas, as it is used by consumers, is much different from the natural gas that is brought from underground up to the wellhead. Although the processing of natural gas is in many respects less complicated than the processing and refining of crude oil, it is equally as necessary before its use by end users.

The natural gas used by consumers is composed almost entirely of methane. However, natural gas found at the wellhead, although still composed primarily of methane, is by no means as pure. Raw natural gas comes from three types of wells: oil wells, gas wells, and condensate wells. Natural gas that comes from oil wells is typically termed 'associated gas'. This gas can exist separate from oil in the formation, free gas, or dissolved in the crude oil, dissolved gas. Natural gas from gas and condensate wells, in which there is little or no crude oil, is termed non associated gas. Gas wells typically produce raw natural gas by itself, while condensate wells produce free natural gas along with a semi-liquid hydrocarbon condensate. Whatever the source of the natural gas, once separated from crude oil (if present) it commonly exists in mixtures with other hydrocarbons; principally ethane, propane, butane, and pentanes. In addition, raw natural gas contains water vapor, hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, helium, nitrogen, and other compounds.

Natural gas processing consists of separating all of the various hydrocarbons and fluids from the pure natural gas, to produce what is known as 'pipeline quality' dry natural gas. Major transportation pipelines usually impose restrictions on the make-up of the natural gas that is allowed into the pipeline. That means that before the natural gas can be transported it must be purified. While the ethane, propane, butane, and pentanes must be removed from natural gas, this does not mean that they are all,waste products.

In fact, associated hydrocarbons, known as 'natural gas liquids' NGLs can be very valuable by-products of natural gas processing. NGLs include ethane, propane, butane, iso-butane, and natural gasoline. These NGLs are sold separately and have a variety of different uses; including enhancing oil recovery in oil wells, providing raw materials for oil refineries or petrochemical plants, and as sources of energy.

While some of the needed processing can be accomplished at or near the wellhead (field processing), the complete processing of natural gas takes place at a processing plant, usually located in a natural gas producing region. The extracted natural gas is transported to these processing plants through a network of gathering pipelines, which are small-diameter, low pressure pipes. A complex gathering system can consist of thousands of miles of pipes, interconnecting the processing plant to upwards of 100 wells in the area. According to the American Gas Association's Gas Facts 2000, there was an estimated 36,100 miles of gathering system pipelines in the U.S. in 1999.

In addition to processing done at the wellhead and at centralized processing plants, some final processing is also sometimes accomplished at 'straddle extraction plants'. These plants are located on major pipeline systems. Although the natural gas that arrives at these straddle extraction plants is already of pipeline quality, in certain instances there still exist small quantities of NGLs, which are extracted at the straddle plants.

The actual practice of processing natural gas to pipeline dry gas quality levels can be quite complex, but usually involves four main processes to remove the various impurities:

Oil and Condensate Removal

Water Removal

Separation of Natural Gas Liquids

Sulfur and Carbon Dioxide Removal

In addition to the four processes above, heaters and scrubbers are installed, usually at or near the wellhead. The scrubbers serve primarily to remove sand and other large-particle impurities. The heaters ensure that the temperature of the gas does not drop too low. With natural gas that contains even low quantities of water, natural gas hydrates have a tendency to form when temperatures drop. These hydrates are solid or semi-solid compounds, resembling ice like crystals. Should these hydrates accumulate, they can impede the passage of natural gas through valves and gathering systems. To reduce the occurrence of hydrates, small natural gas-fired heating units are typically installed along the gathering pipe wherever it is likely that hydrates may form.
In order to process and transport associated dissolved natural gas, it must be separated from the oil in which it is dissolved. This separation of natural gas from oil is most often done using equipment installed at or near the wellhead.

The actual process used to separate oil from natural gas, as well as the equipment that is used, can vary widely. Although dry pipeline quality natural gas is virtually identical across different geographic areas, raw natural gas from different regions may have different compositions and separation requirements. In many instances, natural gas is dissolved in oil underground primarily due to the pressure that the formation is under. When this natural gas and oil is produced, it is possible that it will separate on its own, simply due to decreased pressure; much like opening a can of soda pop allows the release of dissolved carbon dioxide. In these cases, separation of oil and gas is relatively easy, and the two hydrocarbons are sent separate ways for further processing. The most basic type of separator is known as a conventional separator. It consists of a simple closed tank, where the force of gravity serves to separate the heavier liquids like oil, and the lighter gases, like natural gas.

In certain instances, however, specialized equipment is necessary to separate oil and natural gas. An example of this type of equipment is the Low-Temperature Separator. This is most often used for wells producing high pressure gas along with light crude oil or condensate. These separators use pressure differentials to cool the wet natural gas and separate the oil and condensate. Wet gas enters the separator, being cooled slightly by a heat exchanger. The gas then travels through a high pressure liquid 'knockout', which serves to remove any liquids into a low-temperature separator. The gas then flows into this low-temperature separator through a choke mechanism, which expands the gas as it enters the separator. This rapid expansion of the gas allows for the lowering of the temperature in the separator. After liquid removal, the dry gas then travels back through the heat exchanger and is warmed by the incoming wet gas. By varying the pressure of the gas in various sections of the separator, it is possible to vary the temperature, which causes the oil and some water to be condensed out of the wet gas stream. This basic pressure-temperature relationship can work in reverse as well, to extract gas from a liquid oil stream.

In addition to separating oil and some condensate from the wet gas stream, it is necessary to remove most of the associated water. Most of the liquid, free water associated with extracted natural gas is removed by simple separation methods at or near the wellhead. However, the removal of the water vapor that exists in solution in natural gas requires a more complex treatment. This treatment consists of 'dehydrating' the natural gas, which usually involves one of two processes: either absorption, or adsorption.

Absorption occurs when the water vapor is taken out by a dehydrating agent. Adsorption occurs when the water vapor is condensed and collected on the surface.

An example of absorption dehydration is known as Glycol Dehydration. In this process, a liquid desiccant dehydrator serves to absorb water vapor from the gas stream. Glycol, the principal agent in this process, has a chemical affinity for water. This means that, when in contact with a stream of natural gas that contains water, glycol will serve to 'steal' the water out of the gas stream. Essentially, glycol dehydration involves using a glycol solution, usually either diethylene glycol or triethylene glycol, which is brought into contact with the wet gas stream in what is called the 'contactor'. The glycol solution will absorb water from the wet gas. Once absorbed, the glycol particles become heavier and sink to the bottom of the contactor where they are removed. The natural gas, having been stripped of most of its water content, is then transported out of the dehydrator. The glycol solution, bearing all of the water stripped from the natural gas, is put through a specialized boiler designed to vaporize only the water out of the solution. While water has a boiling point of 212 degrees Fahrenheit, glycol does not boil until 400 degrees Fahrenheit. This boiling point differential makes it relatively easy to remove water from the glycol solution, allowing it be reused in the dehydration process.

A new innovation in this process has been the addition of flash tank separator-condensers. As well as absorbing water from the wet gas stream, the glycol solution occasionally carries with it small amounts of methane and other compounds found in the wet gas. In the past, this methane was simply vented out of the boiler. In addition to losing a portion of the natural gas that was extracted, this venting contributes to air pollution and the greenhouse effect. In order to decrease the amount of methane and other compounds that are lost, flash tank separator-condensers work to remove these compounds before the glycol solution reaches the boiler. Essentially, a flash tank separator consists of a device that reduces the pressure of the glycol solution stream, allowing the methane and other hydrocarbons to vaporize ('flash'). The glycol solution then travels to the boiler, which may also be fitted with air or water cooled condensers, which serve to capture any remaining organic compounds that may remain in the glycol solution. In practice, according to the Department of Energy's Office of Fossil Energy, these systems have been shown to recover 90 to 99 percent of methane that would otherwise be flared into the atmosphere.

Solid-desiccant dehydration is the primary form of dehydrating natural gas using adsorption, and usually consists of two or more adsorption towers, which are filled with a solid desiccant. Typical desiccants include activated alumina or a granular silica gel material. Wet natural gas is passed through these towers, from top to bottom. As the wet gas passes around the particles of desiccant material, water is retained on the surface of these desiccant particles. Passing through the entire desiccant bed, almost all of the water is adsorbed onto the desiccant material, leaving the dry gas to exit the bottom of the tower.

Solid-desiccant dehydrators are typically more effective than glycol dehydrators, and are usually installed as a type of straddle system along natural gas pipelines. These types of dehydration systems are best suited for large volumes of gas under very high pressure, and are thus usually located on a pipeline downstream of a compressor station. Two or more towers are required due to the fact that after a certain period of use, the desiccant in a particular tower becomes saturated with water. To 'regenerate' the desiccant, a high-temperature heater is used to heat gas to a very high temperature.

Passing this heated gas through a saturated desiccant bed vaporizes the water in the desiccant tower, leaving it dry and allowing for further natural gas dehydration.
Natural gas coming directly from a well contains many natural gas liquids that are commonly removed. In most instances, natural gas liquids (NGLs) have a higher value as separate products, and it is thus economical to remove them from the gas stream. The removal of natural gas liquids usually takes place in a relatively centralized processing plant, and uses techniques similar to those used to dehydrate natural gas.

There are two basic steps to the treatment of natural gas liquids in the natural gas stream. First, the liquids must be extracted from the natural gas. Second, these natural gas liquids must be separated themselves, down to their base components.


here are two principle techniques for removing NGLs from the natural gas stream: the absorption method and the cryogenic expander process. According to the Gas Processors Association, these two processes account for around 90 percent of total natural gas liquids production.
The absorption method of NGL extraction is very similar to using absorption for dehydration. The main difference is that, in NGL absorption, an absorbing oil is used as opposed to glycol. This absorbing oil has an 'affinity' for NGLs in much the same manner as glycol has an affinity for water. Before the oil has picked up any NGLs, it is termed 'lean' absorption oil. As the natural gas is passed through an absorption tower, it is brought into contact with the absorption oil which soaks up a high proportion of the NGLs.

The rich absorption oil, now containing NGLs, exits the absorption tower through the bottom. It is now a mixture of absorption oil, propane, butanes, pentanes, and other heavier hydrocarbons. The rich oil is fed into lean oil stills, where the mixture is heated to a temperature above the boiling point of the NGLs, but below that of the oil. This process allows for the recovery of around 75 percent of butanes, and 85 - 90 percent of pentanes and heavier molecules from the natural gas stream.

The basic absorption process above can be modified to improve its effectiveness, or to target the extraction of specific NGLs. In the refrigerated oil absorption method, where the lean oil is cooled through refrigeration, propane recovery can be upwards of 90 percent, and around 40 percent of ethane can be extracted from the natural gas stream. Extraction of the other, heavier NGLs can be close to 100 percent using this process.

Cryogenic processes are also used to extract NGLs from natural gas. While absorption methods can extract almost all of the heavier NGLs, the lighter hydrocarbons, such as ethane, are often more difficult to recover from the natural gas stream. In certain instances, it is economic to simply leave the lighter NGLs in the natural gas stream. However, if it is economic to extract ethane and other lighter hydrocarbons, cryogenic processes are required for high recovery rates. Essentially, cryogenic processes consist of dropping the temperature of the gas stream to around -120 degrees Fahrenheit.

There are a number of different ways of chilling the gas to these temperatures, but one of the most effective is known as the turbo expander process. In this process, external refrigerants are used to cool the natural gas stream. Then, an expansion turbine is used to rapidly expand the chilled gases, which causes the temperature to drop significantly. This rapid temperature drop condenses ethane and other hydrocarbons in the gas stream, while maintaining methane in gaseous form. This process allows for the recovery of about 90 to 95 percent of the ethane originally in the gas stream. In addition, the expansion turbine is able to convert some of the energy released when the natural gas stream is expanded into recompressing the gaseous methane effluent, thus saving energy costs associated with extracting ethane.

The extraction of NGLs from the natural gas stream produces both cleaner, purer natural gas, as well as the valuable hydrocarbons that are the NGLs themselves.

Once NGLs have been removed from the natural gas stream, they must be broken down into their base components to be useful. That is, the mixed stream of different NGLs must be separated out. The process used to accomplish this task is called fractionation. Fractionation works based on the different boiling points of the different hydrocarbons in the NGL stream. Essentially, fractionation occurs in stages consisting of the boiling off of hydrocarbons one by one. The name of a particular fractionator gives an idea as to its purpose, as it is conventionally named for the hydrocarbon that is boiled off. The entire fractionation process is broken down into steps, starting with the removal of the lighter NGLs from the stream. The particular fractionators are used in the following order:

Deethanizer - this step separates the ethane from the NGL stream.

Depropanizer - the next step separates the propane.

Debutanizer - this step boils off the butanes, leaving the pentanes and heavier hydrocarbons in the NGL stream.

Butane Splitter or Deisobutanizer - this step separates the iso and normal butanes.
By proceeding from the lightest hydrocarbons to the heaviest, it is possible to separate the different NGLs reasonably easily.

In addition to water, oil, and NGL removal, one of the most important parts of gas processing involves the removal of sulfur and carbon dioxide. Natural gas from some wells contains significant amounts of sulfur and carbon dioxide. This natural gas, because of the rotten smell provided by its sulfur content, is commonly called 'sour gas'. Sour gas is undesirable because the sulfur compounds it contains can be extremely harmful, even lethal, to breathe. Sour gas can also be extremely corrosive. In addition, the sulfur that exists in the natural gas stream can be extracted and marketed on its own. In fact, according to the USGS, U.S. sulfur production from gas processing plants accounts for about 15 percent of the total U.S. production of sulfur.

Sulfur exists in natural gas as hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and the gas is usually considered sour if the hydrogen sulfide content exceeds 5.7 milligrams of H2S per cubic meter of natural gas. The process for removing hydrogen sulfide from sour gas is commonly referred to as sweetening the gas.

The primary process for sweetening sour natural gas is quite similar to the processes of glycol dehydration and NGL absorption. In this case, however, amine solutions are used to remove the hydrogen sulfide. This process is known simply as the 'amine process', or alternatively as the Girdler process, and is used in 95 percent of U.S. gas sweetening operations. The sour gas is run through a tower, which contains the amine solution. This solution has an affinity for sulfur, and absorbs it much like glycol absorbing water. There are two principle amine solutions used, monoethanolamine (MEA) and diethanolamine (DEA). Either of these compounds, in liquid form, will absorb sulfur compounds from natural gas as it passes through. The effluent gas is virtually free of sulfur compounds, and thus loses its sour gas status. Like the process for NGL extraction and glycol dehydration, the amine solution used can be regenerated (that is, the absorbed sulfur is removed), allowing it to be reused to treat more sour gas.

Although most sour gas sweetening involves the amine absorption process, it is also possible to use solid desiccants like iron sponges to remove the sulfide and carbon dioxide.

Sulfur can be sold and used if reduced to its elemental form. Elemental sulfur is a bright yellow powder like material, and can often be seen in large piles near gas treatment plants, as is shown. In order to recover elemental sulfur from the gas processing plant, the sulfur containing discharge from a gas sweetening process must be further treated. The process used to recover sulfur is known as the Claus process, and involves using thermal and catalytic reactions to extract the elemental sulfur from the hydrogen sulfide solution.

In all, the Claus process is usually able to recover 97 percent of the sulfur that has been removed from the natural gas stream. Since it is such a polluting and harmful substance, further filtering, incineration, and 'tail gas' clean up efforts ensure that well over 98 percent of the sulfur is recovered.

Gas processing is an instrumental piece of the natural gas value chain. It is instrumental in ensuring that the natural gas intended for use is as clean and pure as possible, making it the clean burning and environmentally sound energy choice. Once the natural gas has been fully processed, and is ready to be consumed, it must be transported from those areas that produce natural gas, to those areas that require it.

Logging a Gas Well

Logging refers to performing tests during or after the drilling process to allow geologists and drill operators to monitor the progress of the well drilling and to gain a clearer picture of subsurface formations. There are many different types of logging, in fact; over 100 different logging tests can be performed, but essentially they consist of a variety of tests that illuminate the true composition and characteristics of the different layers of rock that the well passes through. Logging is also essential during the drilling process. Monitoring logs can ensure that the correct drilling equipment is used and that drilling is not continued if unfavorable conditions develop.

It is beyond the scope of this website to get into detail concerning the various types of logging tests that can be performed. Various types of tests include standard, electric, acoustic, radioactivity, density, induction, caliper, directional and nuclear logging, to name but a few. Two of the most prolific and often performed tests include standard logging and electric logging.

Standard logging consists of examining and recording the physical aspects of a well. For example, the drill cuttings (rock that is displaced by the drilling of the well) are all examined and recorded, allowing geologists to physically examine the subsurface rock. Also, core samples are taken, which consists of lifting a sample of underground rock intact to the surface, allowing the various layers of rock, and their thickness, to be examined. These cuttings and cores are often examined using powerful microscopes, which can magnify the rock up to 2000 times. This allows the geologist to examine the porosity and fluid content of the subsurface rock, and to gain a better understanding of the earth in which the well is being drilled.

Electric logging consists of lowering a device used to measure the electric resistance of the rock layers in the 'down hole' portion of the well. This is done by running an electric current through the rock formation and measuring the resistance that it encounters along its way. This gives geologists an idea of the fluid content and characteristics. A newer version of electric logging, called induction electric logging, provides much the same types of readings but is more easily performed and provides data that is more easily interpreted.

An example of the data obtained through various forms of logging is shown below. In this representation, the different columns indicate the results of different types of tests. The data is interpreted by an experienced geologist, geophysicist, or petroleum engineer, who is able to learn from what appear as 'squiggly' lines on the well data readout.

The drilling of an exploratory or developing well is the first contact that a geologist or petroleum engineer has with the actual contents of the subsurface geology. Logging, in its many forms, consists of using this opportunity to gain a fuller understanding of what actually lies beneath the surface. In addition to providing information specific to that particular well, vast archives of historical logs exist for geologists interested in the geologic features of a given, or similar, area.

There are many sources of data and information for the geologist and geophysicist to use in the exploration for hydrocarbons. However, this raw data alone would be useless without careful and methodical interpretation. Much like putting together a puzzle, the geophysicist uses all of the sources of data available to create a model, or educated guess, as to the structure of the layers of rock under the ground. Some techniques, including seismic exploration, lend themselves well to the construction of a hand or computer generated visual interpretation of underground formation. Other sources of data, such as that obtained from core samples or logging, are taken into account by the geologist when determining the subsurface geological structures. It must be noted, however, that despite the amazing evolution of technology and exploration techniques, the only way of being sure that a petroleum or natural gas reservoir exists is to drill an exploratory well. Geologists and geophysicists can make their best guesses as to the location of reservoirs, but these are not infallible.

Two-dimensional seismic imaging refers to geophysicists using the data collected from seismic exploration activities to develop a cross-sectional picture of the underground rock formations. The geophysicist interprets the seismic data obtained from the field, taking the vibration recordings of the seismograph and using them to develop a conceptual model of the composition and thickness of the various layers of rock underground. This process is normally used to map underground formations, and to make estimates based on the geologic structures to determine where it is likely that deposits may exist.

There also exists a technique using basic seismic data known as 'direct detection'. In the mid-70's, it was discovered that white bands, called 'bright spots', often appeared on seismic recording strips. These white bands could indicate deposits of hydrocarbons. The nature or porous rock containing natural gas could often result in reflecting stronger seismic reflections than normal, water filled rock. Therefore, in these circumstances, the actual natural gas reservoir could be detected directly from the seismic data.

However, this does not hold universally. Many of these 'bright spots' do not contain hydrocarbons, and many deposits of hydrocarbons are not indicated by white strips on the seismic data. Therefore, although adding a new technique of locating petroleum and natural gas reservoirs, direct detection is not a completely reliable method.

One of the greatest innovations in the history of petroleum exploration is the use of computers to compile and assemble geologic data into a coherent 'map' of the underground. Use of this computer technology is referred to as 'CAEX', which is short for 'computer assisted exploration'.

With the proliferation of the microprocessor, it has become relatively easy to use computers to assemble seismic data that is collected from the field. This allows for the processing of much larger amounts of data, increasing the reliability and informational content of the seismic model. There are three main types of computer assisted exploration models: 2-dimensional, 3-D, and most recently, 4-D.

These imaging techniques, while relying mainly on seismic data acquired in the field, are becoming more and more sophisticated. Computer technology has advanced so far that it is now possible to incorporate the data obtained from different types of tests, such as logging, production information, and gravimetric testing which can all be combined to create a 'visualization' of the underground formation.

Thus geologists and geophysicists are able to combine all of their sources of data to compile one clear, complete image of subsurface geology. An example of this is shown where a geologist uses an interactive computer generated visualization of 3-D seismic data to explore the subsurface layers.

One of the biggest breakthroughs in computer-aided exploration was the development of three-dimensional (3-D) seismic imaging. 3-D imaging utilizes seismic field data to generate a three dimensional picture of underground formations and geologic features. This, in essence, allows the geophysicist and geologist to see a clear picture of the composition of the Earth's crust in a particular area. Obviously, this is tremendously useful in allowing for the exploration of petroleum and natural gas, as an actual image could be used to estimate the probability of formations existing in a particular area, and the characteristics of that potential formation. This technology has been extremely successful in raising the success rate of exploration efforts. In fact, using 3-D seismic has been estimated to increase the likelihood of successful reservoir location by 50 percent!

Although this technology is very useful, it is also very costly. 3-D seismic imaging can cost anywhere up to $1 million per 50 square mile area. The generation of 3-D images requires data to be collected from several thousand locations, as opposed to 2-D imaging, which only requires several hundred data points. As such, 3-D imaging is a much more involved and prolonged process. Therefore, it is usually used in conjunction with other exploration techniques. For example, a geophysicist may use traditional 2-D modeling and examination of geologic features to determine if there is a probability of the presence of natural gas. Once these basic techniques are used, 3-D seismic imaging may be used only in those areas that have a high probability of containing reservoirs.

In addition to broadly locating petroleum reservoirs, 3-D seismic imaging allows for the more accurate placement of wells to be drilled. This increases the productivity of successful wells, allowing for more petroleum and natural gas to be extracted from the ground. In fact, 3-D seismic can increase the recovery rates of productive wells to 40-50 percent, as opposed to 25-30 percent with traditional 2-D exploration techniques.

3-D seismic imaging has become an extremely important tool in the search for oil and natural gas. By 1980, only 100 3-D seismic imaging tests had been performed. However, by the mid 90's, 200 to 300 3-D seismic surveys were being performed each year. In 1996, in the Gulf of Mexico, one of the largest offshore oil and gas producing areas in the U.S., nearly 80 percent of wells drilled in the gulf were based on 3-D seismic data. In 1993, 75 percent of all onshore exploratory surveys conducted used 3-D seismic imaging.

Two dimensional computer assisted exploration includes generating an image of subsurface geology much in the same manner as in normal 2-D data interpretation. However, with the aid of computer technology, it is possible to generate much more detailed maps much quicker than the traditional method. In addition, with 2-D CAEX it is possible to use color graphic displays generated by a computer to highlight geologic features that may not be apparent using traditional 2-D seismic imaging methods.

While 2-D seismic imaging is less complicated and less detailed than 3-D imaging, it must be noted that 3-D imaging techniques were developed prior to 2-D techniques. Thus, although it does not appear to be the logical progression of techniques, the simpler 2-D imaging techniques were actually an extension of 3-D techniques, not the other way around. Because it is simpler, 2-D imaging is much cheaper, and more easily and quickly performed, than 3-D imaging. Because of this, 2-D CAEX imaging may be used in areas that are somewhat likely to contain natural gas deposits, but not likely enough to justify the full cost and time commitment required by 3-D imaging.

One of the latest breakthroughs in seismic exploration, and the modeling of underground rock formations, has been the introduction of four-dimensional (4-D) seismic imaging. This type of imaging is an extension of 3-D imaging technology. However, instead of achieving a simple, static image of the underground, in 4-D imaging the changes in structures and properties of underground formations are observed over time. Since the fourth dimension in 4-D imaging is time, it is also referred to as 4-D 'time lapse' imaging.

Various seismic readings of a particular area are taken at different times, and this sequence of data is fed into a powerful computer. The different images are amalgamated, to create a sort of 'movie' of what is going on under the ground. Through studying how seismic images change over time, geologists can gain a better understanding of many properties of the rock, including underground fluid flow, viscosity, temperature and saturation. Although very important in the exploration process, 4-D seismic images can also be used by petroleum geologists to evaluate the properties of a reservoir, including how it is expected to deplete once petroleum extraction has begun. Using 4-D imaging on a reservoir can increase recovery rates above what can be achieved using 2-D or 3-D imaging. Where the recovery rates using these two types of images are 25 to 30 percent and 40 to 50 percent respectively, the use of 4-D imaging can result in recover rates of 65 to 70 percent.

Mineral Extraction

Once a potential natural gas and crude oil deposit has been located by a team of exploration geologists and geophysicists, it is up to a team of drilling experts to actually dig down to where the natural gas is thought to exist. This section will describe the process of drilling for natural gas, both onshore and offshore. Although the process of digging deep into the Earth's crust to find deposits of natural gas that may or may not actually exist seems daunting, the industry has developed a number of innovations and techniques which both decrease the cost and increase the efficiency of drilling for natural gas. The advance of technology has also contributed greatly to the increased efficiency and success rate for drilling natural gas wells.

The decision of whether or not to drill a well depends on a variety of factors, not the least of which are the economic characteristics of the potential natural gas reservoir. It costs a great deal of money for exploration and production companies to search and drill for natural gas, and there is always the inherent risk that no natural gas will be found.

The exact placement of the drill site depends on a variety of factors, including the nature of the potential formation to be drilled, the characteristics of the subsurface geology, and the depth and size of the target deposit. After the geophysical team identifies the optimal location for a well, it is necessary for the drilling company to ensure that they complete all the necessary steps to ensure that they can legally drill in that area. This usually involves securing permits for the drilling operations, establishing a legal arrangement to allow the natural gas company to extract and sell the resources under a given area of land, and a design for gathering lines that will connect the well to the pipeline.
If the new well, once drilled, does in fact come in contact with natural gas deposits, it is developed to allow the extraction of the natural gas, and is termed a development or productive well. At this point, with the well drilled and hydrocarbons present, the well may be completed to facilitate its production of natural gas. However, if the exploration team was incorrect in its estimation of the existence of marketable quantity of natural gas at a wellsite, the well is termed, a dry well, and production does not proceed.

Natural Gas Storage

Natural gas, like most other commodities, can be stored for an indefinite period of time. The exploration, production, and transportation of natural gas takes time, and the natural gas that reaches its destination is not always needed right away, so it is injected into underground storage facilities. These storage facilities can be located near market centers that do not have a ready supply of locally produced natural gas

Traditionally, natural gas has been a seasonal fuel. That is, demand for natural gas is usually higher during the winter, partly because it is used for heat in residential and commercial settings. Stored natural gas plays a vital role in ensuring that any excess supply delivered during the summer months is available to meet the increased demand of the winter months. However, with the recent trend towards natural gas fired electric generation, demand for natural gas during the summer months is now increasing (due to the demand for electricity to power air conditioners and the like). Natural gas in storage also serves as insurance against any unforeseen accidents, natural disasters, or other occurrences that may affect the production or delivery of natural gas.

Natural gas storage plays a vital role in maintaining the reliability of supply needed to meet the demands of consumers. Historically, when natural gas was a regulated commodity, storage was part of the bundled product sold by the pipelines to distribution utilities. This all changed in 1992 with the introduction of the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission's Order 636, which opened up the natural gas market to deregulation. Essentially, this meant that where natural gas storage was required prior to Order 636 for the operational requirements of the pipelines in meeting the needs of the utilities, it is now available to anyone seeking storage for commercial purposes or operational requirements. Storage used to serve only as a buffer between transportation and distribution, to ensure adequate supplies of natural gas were in place for seasonal demand shifts, and unexpected demand surges. Now, in addition to serving those purposes, natural gas storage is also used by industry participants for commercial reasons; storing gas when prices are low, and withdrawing and selling it when prices are high, for instance. The purpose and use of storage has been closely linked to the regulatory environment of the time.

According to the Energy Information Administration (EIA), as of 2000 there was 3.899 Trillion cubic feet (Tcf) of working gas storage capacity in the United States.

There are basically two uses for natural gas in storage facilities: meeting base load requirements, and meeting peak load requirements. As mentioned, natural gas storage is required for two reasons: meeting seasonal demand requirements, and as insurance against unforeseen supply disruptions. Base load storage capacity is used to meet seasonal demand increases. Base load facilities are capable of holding enough natural gas to satisfy long term seasonal demand requirements. Typically, the turn-over rate for natural gas in these facilities is a year; natural gas is generally injected during the summer non-heating season, which usually runs from April through October, and withdrawn during the winter heating season, usually from November to March. These reservoirs are larger, but their delivery rates are relatively low, meaning the natural gas that can be extracted each day is limited. Instead, these facilities provide a prolonged, steady supply of natural gas. Depleted gas reservoirs are the most common type of base load storage facility.

Peak load storage facilities, on the other hand, are designed to have high-deliverability for short periods of time, meaning natural gas can be withdrawn from storage quickly should the need arise. Peak load facilities are intended to meet sudden, short-term demand increases. These facilities cannot hold as much natural gas as base load facilities; however, they can deliver smaller amounts of gas more quickly, and can also be replenished in a shorter amount of time than base load facilities. While base load facilities have long term injection and withdrawal seasons, turning over the natural gas in the facility about once per year, peak load facilities can have turn over rates as short as a few days or weeks. Salt caverns are the most common type of peak load storage facility, although aquifers may be used to meet these demands as well.

Natural gas is usually stored underground, in large storage reservoirs. There are three main types of underground storage: depleted gas reservoirs, aquifers, and salt caverns. In addition to underground storage, however, natural gas can be stored as liquefied natural gas (LNG). LNG allows natural gas to be shipped and stored in liquid form, meaning it takes up much less space than gaseous natural gas.

Underground natural gas storage fields grew in popularity shortly after World War II. At the time, the natural gas industry noted that seasonal demand increases could not feasibly be met by pipeline delivery alone. In order to meet seasonal demand increases, the deliverability of pipelines and thus their size, would have to increase dramatically. However, the technology required to construct such large pipelines to consuming regions was, at the time, unattainable and unfeasible. In order to be able to meet seasonal demand increases, underground storage fields were the only option.

As mentioned, there are three main types of underground natural gas storage facilities. Specific characteristics of depleted reservoirs, aquifers, and salt caverns may be found below. Essentially, any underground storage facility is reconditioned before injection, to create a sort of storage vessel underground. Natural gas is injected into the formation, building up pressure as more natural gas is added. In this sense, the underground formation becomes a sort of pressurized natural gas container.

As with newly drilled wells, the higher the pressure in the storage facility, the more readily gas may be extracted. Once the pressure drops to below that of the wellhead, there is no pressure differential left to push the natural gas out of the storage facility. This means that, in any underground storage facility, there is a certain amount of gas that may never be extracted. This is known as physically unrecoverable gas; it is permanently embedded in the formation.

In addition to this physically unrecoverable gas, underground storage facilities contain what is known as base gas or cushion gas. This is the volume of gas that must remain in the storage facility to provide the required pressurization to extract the remaining gas. In the normal operation of the storage facility, this cushion gas remains underground; however a portion of it may be extracted using specialized compression equipment at the wellhead.

Working gas is the volume of natural gas in the storage reservoir that can be extracted during the normal operation of the storage facility. This is the natural gas that is being stored and withdrawn; the capacity of storage facilities normally refers to their working gas capacity. At the beginning of a withdrawal cycle, the pressure inside the storage facility is at its highest; meaning working gas can be withdrawn at a high rate. As the volume of gas inside the storage facility drops, pressure, and thus deliverability in the storage facility also decreases. Periodically, underground storage facility operators may reclassify portions of working gas as base gas after evaluating the operation of their facilities.

The first instance of natural gas successfully being stored underground occurred in Weland County, Ontario, Canada, in 1915. This storage facility used a depleted natural gas well that had been reconditioned into a storage field. In the United States, the first storage facility was developed just south of Buffalo, New York. By 1930, there were nine storage facilities in six different states. Prior to 1950, virtually all natural gas storage facilities were in depleted reservoirs.

The most prominent and common form of underground storage consists of depleted gas reservoirs. Depleted reservoirs are those formations that have already been tapped of all their recoverable natural gas. This leaves an underground formation, geologically capable of holding natural gas. In addition, using an already developed reservoir for storage purposes allows the use of the extraction and distribution equipment left over from when the field was productive. Having this extraction network in place reduces the cost of converting a depleted reservoir into a storage facility. Depleted reservoirs are also attractive because their geological characteristics are already well known. Of the three types of underground storage, depleted reservoirs, on average, are the cheapest and easiest to develop, operate, and maintain.

The factors that determine whether or not a depleted reservoir will make a suitable storage facility are both geographic and geologic. Geographically, depleted reservoirs must be relatively close to consuming regions. They must also be close to transportation infrastructure, including trunk pipelines and distribution systems. While depleted reservoirs are numerous in the U.S., they are more abundantly available in producing regions. In regions without depleted reservoirs, like the upper Midwest, one of the other two storage options is required.

Geologically, depleted reservoir formations must have high permeability and porosity. The porosity of the formation determines the amount of natural gas that it may hold, while its permeability determines the rate at which natural gas flows through the formation, which in turn determines the rate of injection and withdrawal of working gas. In certain instances, the formation may be stimulated to increase permeability.

In order to maintain pressure in depleted reservoirs, about 50 percent of the natural gas in the formation must be kept as cushion gas. However, depleted reservoirs, having already been filled with natural gas and hydrocarbons, do not require the injection of what will become physically unrecoverable gas; that gas already exists in the formation.

Aquifers are underground porous, permeable rock formations that act as natural water reservoirs. However, in certain situations, these water containing formations may be reconditioned and used as natural gas storage facilities. As they are more expensive to develop than depleted reservoirs, these types of storage facilities are usually used only in areas where there are no nearby depleted reservoirs. Traditionally, these facilities are operated with a single winter withdrawal period, although they may be used to meet peak load requirements as well.

Aquifers are the least desirable and most expensive type of natural gas storage facility for a number of reasons. First, the geological characteristics of aquifer formations are not as thoroughly known, as with depleted reservoirs. A significant amount of time and money goes into discovering the geological characteristics of an aquifer, and determining its suitability as a natural gas storage facility. Seismic testing must be performed, much like is done for the exploration of potential natural gas formations.

The area of the formation, the composition and porosity of the formation itself, and the existing formation pressure must all be discovered prior to development of the formation. In addition, the capacity of the reservoir is unknown, and may only be determined once the formation is further developed.

In order to develop a natural aquifer into an effective natural gas storage facility, all of the associated infrastructure must also be developed. This includes installation of wells, extraction equipment, pipelines, dehydration facilities, and possibly compression equipment. Since aquifers are naturally full of water, in some instances powerful injection equipment must be used, to allow sufficient injection pressure to push down the resident water and replace it with natural gas. While natural gas being stored in aquifers has already undergone all of its processing, upon extraction from a water bearing aquifer formation the gas typically requires further dehydration prior to transportation, which requires specialized equipment near the wellhead. Aquifer formations do not have the same natural gas retention capabilities as depleted reservoirs. This means that some of the natural gas that is injected escapes from the formation, and must be gathered and extracted by 'collector' wells, specifically designed to pick up gas that may escape from the primary aquifer formation.

In addition to these considerations, aquifer formations typically require a great deal more 'cushion gas' than do depleted reservoirs. Since there is no naturally occurring gas in the formation to begin with, a certain amount of natural gas that is injected will ultimately prove physically unrecoverable. In aquifer formations, cushion gas requirements can be as high as 80 percent of the total gas volume. While it is possible to extract cushion gas from depleted reservoirs, doing so from aquifer formations could have negative effects, including formation damage. As such, most of the cushion gas that is injected into any one aquifer formation may remain unrecoverable, even after the storage facility is shut down. Most aquifer storage facilities were developed when the price of natural gas was low, meaning this cushion gas was not very expensive to give up. However, with higher prices, aquifer formations are increasingly expensive to develop.

All of these factors mean that developing an aquifer formation as a storage facility can be time consuming and expensive. In some instances, aquifer development can take 4 years, which is more than twice the time it takes to develop depleted reservoirs as storage facilities. In addition to the increased time and cost of aquifer storage, there are also environmental restrictions to using aquifers as natural gas storage. In the early 1980's the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) set certain rules and restrictions on the use of aquifers as natural gas storage facilities. These restrictions are intended to reduce the possibility of fresh water contamination.

Underground salt formations offer another option for natural gas storage. These formations are well suited to natural gas storage in that salt caverns, once formed, allow little injected natural gas to escape from the formation unless specifically extracted. The walls of a salt cavern also have the structural strength of steel, which makes it very resilient against reservoir degradation over the life of the storage facility.

Essentially, salt caverns are formed out of existing salt deposits. These underground salt deposits may exist in two possible forms: salt domes, and salt beds. Salt domes are thick formations created from natural salt deposits that, over time, leach up through overlying sedimentary layers to form large dome-type structures. They can be as large as a mile in diameter, and 30,000 feet in height. Typically, salt domes used for natural gas storage are between 6,000 and 1,500 feet beneath the surface, although in certain circumstances they can come much closer to the surface. Salt beds are shallower, thinner formations. These formations are usually no more than 1,000 feet in height. Because salt beds are wide, thin formations, once a salt cavern is introduced, they are more prone to deterioration, and may also be more expensive to develop than salt domes.

Once a suitable salt dome or salt bed deposit is discovered, and deemed suitable for natural gas storage, it is necessary to develop a 'salt cavern' within the formation. Essentially, this consists of using water to dissolve and extract a certain amount of salt from the deposit, leaving a large empty space in the formation. This is done by drilling a well down into the formation, and cycling large amounts of water through the completed well. This water will dissolve some of the salt in the deposit, and be cycled back up the well, leaving a large empty space that the salt used to occupy. This process is known as salt cavern leaching.

Salt cavern leaching is used to create caverns in both types of salt deposits, and can be quite expensive. However, once created, a salt cavern offers an underground natural gas storage vessel with very high deliverability. In addition, cushion gas requirements are the lowest of all three storage types, with salt caverns only requiring about 33 percent of total gas capacity to be used as cushion gas.

Salt cavern storage facilities are primarily located along the Gulf Coast, as well as in the northern states, and are best suited for peak load storage. Salt caverns are typically much smaller than depleted gas reservoirs and aquifers, in fact underground salt caverns usually take up only one one-hundredth of the acreage taken up by a depleted gas reservoir. As such, salt caverns cannot hold the volume of gas necessary to meet base load storage requirements. However, deliverability from salt caverns is typically much higher than for either aquifers or depleted reservoirs. Therefore natural gas stored in a salt cavern may be more readily (and quickly) withdrawn, and caverns may be replenished with natural gas more quickly than in either of the other types of storage facilities. Moreover, salt caverns can readily begin flowing gas on as little as one hour's notice, which is useful in emergency situations or during unexpected short term demand surges. Salt caverns may also be replenished more quickly than other types of underground storage facilities.

Storage facilities are most concentrated in the consuming north east region of the country, but can be found nationwide.

Ban battlax (dpn 120/60, blkg 180/55), plat kopling, accu, busi & olie baru. Tanpa surat-surat
Merek: SUZUKI
Model: GSX-R750RK
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Yamalube Oli

Seiring dengan lajunya perkembangan teknologi YAMAHA, serta meningkatnya kebutuhan konsumen terhadap pelumas yang berkualitas, YAMALUBE sebagai oli berstandar kualitas dari Yamaha Motor Co. Japan, diformulasi khusus untuk sepeda motor Yamaha, kini menghadirkan oli dengan teknologi terbaru.

Teknologi baru ini dikenal dengan XPEED TECHNOLOGY

X-TRA, sebuah keunggulan yang melebihi pelumas lainnya dan berkaitan dengan
PERFORMA MESIN TINGGI		P - Performance (Performa Mesin Lebih Tinggi). Yamalube baru menggunakan standar tingkat API service yang lebih tinggi (SJ / SL) dengan formula baru standar Yamaha Jepang sehingga dapat mengurangi penimbunan kerak sisa pembakaran dan mencegah keausan komponen mesin serta mengontol oksidasi sehingga kerja mesin lebih optimal.
RAMAH LINGKUNGAN		E - Environmental Friendly (Ramah Lingkungan). Peningkatan kualitas formula ini mampu memperpanjang jangka waktu penggunaan oli menjadi tahan lama, sehingga mengurangi pembuangan oli bekas pakai. Formula baru ini juga dapat mengurangi sisa karbon pembakaran yang mencemarkan udara.
PENGGUNAAN LEBIH EFISIEN		E - Efficiency (Efisien). Penggunaannya lebih efisien. Kekentalan oli yang pas serta tingkat penguapan rendah akan menghasilkan efisiensi penggunaan oli pada mesin sepeda motor.
TAHAN LAMA		D - Durability, (Tahan Lama). Formula baru ini mampu melindungi mesin lebih sempurna, sehingga menjadikan mesin lebih awet dan tahan lama.

_{Oli YAMALUBE dengan Teknologi XPEED, sebagai oli berstandar kualitas dari Yamaha Motor Co. Japan, dengan standar API Service SJ dan SL yang memiliki tingkat viskositas yang sesuai untuk sepeda motor YAMAHA anda. Uji kualitas yang telah dilakukan YAMALUBE dengan Teknologi XPEED melalui beberapa kriteria pengujian, diantaranya uji performa mesin, uji emisi gas serta uji efisiensi penggunaan oli. Berdasarkan fakta dari data uji kualitas tersebut, secara keseluruhan, formulasi baru YAMALUBE ber-Teknologi XPEED memiliki kualitas yang sangat memuaskan bila dibandingkan dengan pelumas sebelumnya}

Astra Honda Motor luncurkan New Beat

JAKARTA (Bisnis.com): Mengawali 2010 PT Astra Honda Motor (AHM) memperkenalkan Honda Beat dengan tampilan baru (New Beat) untuk menjawab keinginan konsumen terhadap model skutik yang berpenampilanmodern dan trendi.

Produk baru ini sedianya diluncurkan oleh AHM pada 20 Januari lalu, namun tertunda karena suasana berkabung seluruh Group Astra atas meninggalnya Presdir PT Astra International Tbk Michael D Ruslim.

New Beat ini mengawali kiprah Honda di segmen skutik domestik dengan modal perubahan tampilan pada bagian front fender yang lebih tinggi dibandingkan dengan model sebelumnya. Perubahan ini diyakini memberikan kesan yang lebih modern tapi tetap stylish.

Direktur Pemasaran PT AHM Julius Aslan mengatakan skutik merupakan tipe sepeda motor yang memiliki pertumbuhan permintaan sangat pesat di Indonesia dibandingkan dengan model sepeda motor lain. Ini terjadi karena karakter sepeda motor skutik yang relatif praktis dan nyaman dikendarai.

"Kami berharap tampilan baru Beat ini akan membuat remaja atau anak muda penggunanya lebih percaya diri karena motornya tampil trendi dan modern," katanya dalam pernyataan tertulis kepada Bisnis.com, hari ini.

AHM tidak hanya memperkenalkan Beat berpenampilan baru, tapi juga merilis varian Beat berpelek jari-jari (spoke wheel) melengkapi varian lama yang menggunakan tipe pelek racing (casting wheel).

Julius menegaskan kehadiran varian Beat pelek jari-jari ini diharapkan menambah pilihan lain bagi pecinta Honda Beat yang selama ini dikenal sebagai model skutik trendi dan hemat bahan bakar.

"Honda Beat tampilan baru versi spoke wheel maupun casting wheel akan secara resmi dipasarkan di jaringan diler Honda mulai bulan depan," tambahnya.

Untuk varian baru Honda Beat berpelek jari-jari, AHM membanderolnya dengan harga Rp12 juta per unit (on the road DKI Jakarta), sedangkan harga untuk tipe pelek racing sebesar Rp12,5 juta per unit. AHM tetap memasarkan Honda Beat dengan varian warna sebelumnya, yakni Pop Pink, Electro Red, Tecno White, Hard Rock Black, dan Jazz Blue.

Di segmen skutik pasar motor domestik, sepanjang 2009 AHM mengantongi penjualan sebesar 861.737 unit atau naik 62% dibandingkan dengan realisasi 2008. Kontribusi skutik melambung dari hanya 18,5% pada 2008 menjadi 32% pada tahun lalu.

Khusus model Beat, AHM mencatatkan penjualan yang terus meningkat sejak awal 2009 dari 24.000 unit per bulan hingga menembus hampir 50.000 unit per bulan. Total penjualan skutik bermesin 110 cc ini sepanjang 2009 mencapai 432.726 unit.(er)

NISSAN X-TRAIL AUTECH 2010 FOKUS PADA KAKI-KAKI

Visual impact yang dihasilkan oleh Nissan X-Trail versi Autech ternyata cukup mencengangkan. Seakan percaya diri dengan brand besar Nissan dan Autech, pada grill-nya tak ada lagi logo Nissan. Tapi hal itu justru membuat fascia depannya semakin elegan. Sebuah sosok SUV elegan, tanpa menghilangkan unsur adventures-nya. “Saat ini kami baru fokus pada penjualan unit X-Trail Autech. Tapi tidak menutup kemungkinan dalam jangka waktu dekat, para pemilik X-Trail (non Autech), bisa mendapatkan body kit Autech beserta jok kulitnya. Tapi pemasangannya harus melalui dealer kami. Karena menyangkut masalah kualitas daan kerapihan pemasangan,” ucap Rizki Satria Indrawan, supervisor product marketing strategy PT. Nissan Motor Indonesia. - infografis. “Kami memang menghadirkan X-Trail versi Autech bagi customer yang ingin tampil beda.” Walaupun versi Autech tetap menggunakan basis dari X-Trail yang telah ada, perbedaan mencolok terlihat dari fascia depannya. Namun side protector dan rear lower bumper-nya pun, turut memberikan peningkatan visual efect. Kesan gagah X-Trail pun (sedikit) dihilangkan karena penggunaan desain bumper V-shape dengan grill horisontal beraksen krom. Desain rumah fog lamp pun senada dengan grill, beraksen krom horisontal. So Japanese! “Bumper depannya keren banget. Style elegannya udah cocok sama grill beraksen kromnya yang horisontal. Tapi kalau menurut saya, bumper belakangnya terlalu gaya offroad/racing. Malah kayak mobil buat adveture. Jadi agak kurang senada antara bumper depan dengan belakang. Lebih bagus bumper belakang di buat lebih simpel,” pendapat Aldy Antonius dari SAS Bodywork, Warung Buncit, Jakarta Selatan. - infografis+foto Aldy Jika diperhatikan, MOTOR rasa hasil konversi Autech pada X-Trail sudah cukup berhasil membuat para modifikator kehilangan salah satu obyek modifikasinya. Karena dana lebih sekitar Rp 16 juta (dibanding non Autech), memang kamu keluarkan buat versi yang lebih tinggi lengkap dengan paket dress up-nya bukan? Interiornya pun sudah menggunakan material pelapis kulit berkualitas. Jadi, fokus saja ubahan yang akan kamu lakukan pada kaki-kaki. Charlie dari Mega Arvia Utama pun berpendapat. “Buat kaki-kaki, kalau masih mau dipakainya nyaman, bisa pakai velg 20 inci. Tapi kalau pengen lebih ekstrem, ring 22 bakalan cakep tuh,” jelas pria ramah ini. “Tapi setelah diganti pakai ring 20 maupun 22 inci, mau enggak mau kepet air pada spakbor, musti dilepas. Kalo enggak, ban mentok ke kepet air bagian dalam,” tambahnya. Ada beberapa model velg 20 dan 22 inci yang direkomendasikan buat ‘all new’ X-Trail versi Autech. “Kalau masih pengin ngerasa nyaman, cukup pake velg 20 inci aja. Buat bannya, pake ukuran 255/45ZR20. Velgnya bisa pake Ego Flair, Lenso Grande 2, Ego Savari atau produk kami yang paling baru, Lenso Grande 4,” menurut Eddy Silangga, branch manager Mega Arvia Utama. “Kalo pengin lebih gaya dan ekstrem, pake ring 22 inci keren banget, cuma memang profil ban pasti lebih tipis. Modelnya ada Ego Fashion dan Lenso Como. Tapi kalau mau nyeleneh, pakai saja velg palang warna hitam seperti Lenso Grande1 atau Ego McLaren.”
Reporter : Risson

OSAMU HASHIMOTO THE CHAMPION OF IASCA JAPAN

Itu karena MOTOR berkesempatan ngobrol lebih dekat dengan Osamu Hashimoto, perwakilan Pioneer Jepang sebagai juri kontes dalam acara ini. Namanya memang kurang populer di telinga pecinta audio Tanah Air. Tapi, curriculum vitae-nya menjelaskan lebih banyak. Pria kelahiran Fukuoka tahun 1964 ini sudah banyak makan asam garam di dunia car audio. Tahun 1996 saja, Osamu sudah membukukan 10 kali berturut-turut sebagai champion IASCA Japan. Osamu juga sempat menjadi president IASCA Jepang tahun 1994. Dan kini ia telah membukukan prestasi 5 kali berturut-turut (sejak 2004) sebagai 1st winner di Pioneer Car Sound Contest di Jepang. Ditanya soal tren car audio tahun 2010, Osamu punya pendapatnya sendiri. “Jenis-jenis suara tergantung dari karakter speakernya dan tergantung dari budaya masing-masing negara. Contohnya ada penyuka aliran SQ, SPL bahkan gabungan keduanya. Di Eropa misalnya, saat ini sedang tren SQ dan SPL,” katanya. Soal tren di Asia, cenderung berbeda dibandingkan Eropa. Menurutnya di Asia, tren car theater sangat digandrungi, “Menghadirkan nuansa bioskop dalam kabin, jadi mainan baru yang akan bertahan lama. Terlebih car theater dengan sistem DTS 5.1 yang sedang hype di Jepang saat ini.” Khususnya di Indonesia, Osamu melihat konsep car audio yang bersistem SQ dan car theater akan terus berkembang. Yang dipengaruhi semakin berkembangnya informasi dan pengetahuan yang didapat oleh instalatur lokal. Sarannya soal membangun sistem car audio bagi para instalatur, “Perlu ada unsur emosional yang bermain, sehingga suara yang dihasilkan mampu menyentuh hati terdalam pendengarnya.” Lebih lanjut, motivasi tinggi diberikan bagi para instalatur lokal. Selain pemilihan komponen dan instalasi yang tepat, “Jadilah instalatur audio yang tidak mengeluh, dan selalu terus berlatih agar menjadi yang terbaik,” harapnya. Sedikit cerita kisahnya di masa muda, Osamu pada usia 17 tahun saja sudah bereksperimen membuat speaker sendiri, dan hingga kini aktif dalam gerai audio pro shop bernama Emotion yang telah ia bangun selama 16 tahun. Kini, selain menjadi instalatur, Osamu juga mengisi rubrik Auto Sound di majalah Jepang ‘Stereo Sound’.
Reporter : FaJaR

Harley Davidson Electra Shovel Head Big Twin

Harley Davidson Electra Shovel Head Big Twin classic, kondisi terawat, Dokumen lengkap, Form A, BPKB/STNK
Merek: Harley davidson
Model: Electra Shovel Head
Bekas/Baru?: Bekas
Motor Gede
Tahun buat: 1971
Kilometer:
Kuning Emas bunglon

Harga: Rp. 165 Juta
Harga Nego

Kontak:
m.taufik19
No. Telepon: 0811957526
Penjual: Pribadi
Kode Pos: 12430
Kirim Email
Kota: Jakarta
Lokasi: BOGOR

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Tahap Eksplorasi MIGAS

Tahap-Tahap Operasi Dalam Industri Minyak dan Gas Bumi

Lingkungan Terdapatnya Minyak dan Gas Bumi Hampir sbagian besar minyak dan gas bumi ditemukan pada lapisan batuan pasir dan karbonat. Sangat terbatas terbentuk batuan shale, batuan volkanik ataupun rekahan batuan dasar (basalt). Studi pendahuluan meliputi geologi regional, yang menyangkut studi komparatif atau perbandingan dengan daerah geologi lainnya yang telah terbukti produktif. studi ini mempertimbangkan formasi yang bisa dijadikan sasaran eksplorasi, struktur yang dapat bertindak sebagai perangkap dan seterusnya. Pada umumnya lebih tebal lapisan sedimen didapatkan, kemungkinan ditemukannya minyak bumi akan lebih besar. Hal ini disebabkan karena pada umumnya lebih tebal lapisan sedimen itu, tentu lebih banyak lagi formasi yang dapat bertindak sebagai reservoir maupun sebagai batuan induk. Lebih luasnya batuan sedimen tersebar, akan lebih memungkinkan atau lebih leluasa kita mencapai perangkap minyak dan gas bumi.

Diluncurkan, "Game" Pengelolaan Uang untuk Siswa SMP

JAKARTA,KOMPAS.com - Junior Achievement More than Money diluncurkan sebagai sebuah program simulatif untuk mengenalkan siswa SMP di Jakarta tentang cara-cara memeroleh, membelanjakan, memberi, menabung/menyimpan, serta menciptakan usaha-usaha yang dapat menghasilkan uang.

Program yang digulirkan atas inisiatif HSBC bekerjasama dengan organisasi nirlaba Prestasi Junior Indonesia (PJI) tersebut diperuntukkan bagi 1.700 anak didik usia 7-11 tahun.

Di Indonesia, program ini sedianya dilaksanakan di tujuh SMP Negeri di Jakarta, yaitu SMPN 1, SMPN 218, SMPN 154, SMPN 58, SMPN 137, SMPN 156, serta SMPN 8.

Menurut Direktur Eksekutif PJI, program ini dipersiapkan untuk mendukung upaya pemerintah yang tengah menggalakkan pendidikan karakter dan kewirausahaan di kalangan anak didik di tingkat dasar dan menengah, khususnya SMP.

Untuk itu, kata Marzuki, untuk mendidik siswa menjadi seorang entrepreneur, hal paling mendasar yang harus ditanamkan adalah bagaimana anak didik menghargai uang dan selalu bertanggung jawab terhadap uang yang dikeluarkannya.

Hal tersebut diharapkan akan membentuk jiwa dan karakter anak didik yang disiplin, selalu bertanggung jawab, serta tidak pantang menyerah. "Usia mereka sudah perlu diperkenalkan lebih jauh, karena pembekalan ilmu pengelolaan keuangan ini sebetulnya pembelajaran mengenai konsep-konsep manajemen keuangan yang kelak terus mereka butuhkan di kemudian hari. Hanya saja, di taraf ini formatnya disesuaikan dengan kemampuan dan usia mereka, yaitu menggunakan 'game'," ujar Marzuki di sela peluncuran Program Junior Achievement More than Money tersebut di SMPN 1 Cikini, Jakarta, Kamis (21/1/2010).

Pada kesempatan bersamaan, Direktur Marketing HSBC Wawan Salum mengatakan, kerjasama program antara PJI dan HSBC tersebut mencakup komitmen pembiayaan program senilai 3,4 juta dolar AS untuk selama 3 tahun di 15 negara di lima benua, termasuk salah satunya Indonesia di Asia.

Khusus di Indonesia, kata Wawan, dana yang digelontorkan mendukung program ini sebesar 25 ribu dolar AS untuk selama 6 bulan. Dana tersebut digunakan untuk pelatihan guru dan pembelian materi pendukung program tersebut di 7 SMPN di Jakarta. "Ini baru 'pilot program' sehingga masih dilihat ke depannya berdasarkan evaluasi 6 bulan pertama itu," tambah Wawan